Tribal-Health Books

Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing, and Hallucinogenic Powers
by Richard Evans Schultes, Albert Hofmann, and Christian Rätsch

Publisher:Healing Arts Press/Inner Traditions

Year:2001 (revised and expanded edition)

ISBN:089281979-0

Categories:Book Reviews, Recommended Books

Reviewed by Jon Hanna, 6/26/2007

It may be a rare thing for a second edition of a book to warrant its own review, but such is definitely the case with the new edition of the Schultes' and Hofmann's 1979 classic Plants of the Gods. The updated version was produced as a German translation in 1998 by Christian Rätsch, and Healing Arts Press released the English translation of this in late 2001. It is a thing of beauty.

The primary and most dramatic improvement is the inclusion of numerous new photographs and art images. Although this second edition retains many of the same photos, it introduces a lot of new ones as well. In some cases, the item depicted-such as the statue of Shiva with Datura flowers in his hair (p. 11)-has been revisited with a higher-quality photo. Frequently, black and white images have been replaced with a similar image in stunning full-color. While this works superbly in most cases, there are a few situations-such as the replacement color photo of an aerial view of the Kuluene river (p. 24)-where the original black and white photo was much better. New psychedelic art is featured throughout from the likes of Pablo Amaringo, Walangari Karntawarra Jakamarra, Nana Nauwald, and Donna Torres. There are even some incredible watercolor paintings done by Christian Rätsch himself (think Codex Seraphinianus on acid)-where can we see more of his art!? A beautiful mural of an ayahuasca ceremony that graces a wall at the Cuzco Airport in Peru reminds us that some countries have a more enlightened attitude towards the use of psychoptic plants.

"Fourteen Major Hallucinogenic Plants" of the first edition has been altered to become "The Most Important Hallucinogenic Plants," and expanded to include new sections on Anadenanthera colubrina, ayahuasca analogs, Salvia divinorum, and Duboisia hopwoodii. There have been numerous expansions on the old chapters as well, including many additional species of the genera discussed. Six new plants have been added to the "Plant Lexicon," and this section has been vastly improved through the addition of color photographs. Previously, the majority of the plants described were depicted via illustrations, with only a few photo images; this situation is now reversed, with only a few illustrations. (It is a shame that there are any drawings remaining, although I suspect in some cases it might be hard to obtain photographs of the plants in question. Still, in other cases it should not have been difficult-photos of Banisteriopsis caapi, Lagochilus inebrians, Mandragora officinarum, Mimosa tenuiflora [= M. hostilis], Peucedanum japonicum, Scirpus atrovirens, Tabernanthe iboga, and Virola theiodora are all available via the web). The map of "Native Use of Major Hallucinogens" has been expanded to include Hyoscyamus sp., Duboisia sp., and A. colubrina, and the depicted range of Cannabis use has been increased.

Some problems that the original book had are, alas, retained or, in a few cases, exaggerated. The gutter of the book is too tight, causing one to crack the spine to get a full view; this was the case in the earlier edition as well. New layout glitches include shaded backgrounds for text boxes being placed too close to the edge of the text (in some cases touching it), and headlines that sit too close to the images. The problem of citing alkaloid contents as fixed numbers is still present (although in a few cases ranges are presented). Those with little knowledge on the subject might actually believe that all dried Trichocereus pachanoi plants have a 2% mescaline content, while this is actually the peak of the range that can be determined through a survey of the scant few published isolation analyses (which dips down to 0.33%, and even lower in published HPLC analysis), and may not be typical. In new cases when ranges are presented, such as the case with Mimosa tenuiflora root-bark said to contain 0.57 to 1.0% DMT, the information may not be correct. (M. tenuiflora has been reported to contain 0.31 to 0.57% DMT with specific analyses available in the literature of Gonçalves de Lima 1946 and Patcher et al. 1959, and there have been unsubstantiated counter-culture claims of 1% to 11%, see ER Vol. X, No. 3, 2001 and Ott 2001). Both the new and the old editions of this book are riddled with statements about alkaloid contents that are presented as if they were fixed amounts, when in reality alkaloid content can be highly variable.

Some new errors are introduced with this edition. Spelling mistakes are peppered throughout (they've misspelled author Hofmann's name on the back cover!), and awkward phrasings are not uncommon in those sections that were translated from German. In some cases, plants are presented as containing specific alkaloids that they do not have. For example, it is remarked that "The Turkey Red variety of the grass Phalaris arundinacea contains liberal amounts of DMT." This is in error, as this variety contains liberal amounts of 5-MeO-DMT, not DMT. Also, photographs of four cacti-Ariocarpus retusus, A. fissuratus, Astrophyton asterias, and Aztekium riterii-known in México as "peyote" are depicted, with the statement "They primarily contain the substance mescaline and other psychoactive alkaloids." This too is in error, as only A. riterii has been found to contain trace amounts of mescaline, and no mescaline has been found at all in the others. (It was interesting to see that Rätsch considers a heftier amount of mescaline, "0.5-0.8 gram" to be a dose, compared to the Shulgins' more conservative 200-400 mg dose listed in PIHKAL; I tend to agree with Rätsch.)

Any and all criticism of this book should be viewed as minor, as it is truly a marvelous work. Rätsch has taken a great book and made it better. Especially if you own the first edition, you owe it to yourself to pick up this revamp. It is visual delight, a joy to read cover-to-cover, and it will no doubt be revisited repeatedly for years to come.

This is a good starting point for working with Psychoactive Plants. It is however not quite as informative as the author's "The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications". If you are interested in working with plants but are not sure then this is the book for you to get the real information you need to make a informed decision.

This is a good book on the topic of psychotropic plants, though I have to admit that I'm a little shocked that the opium poppy wasn't included. Oh well. There are enough books on that subject that I'm sure if you really want to study the "black smoke" you can find another book to read. It presents an interesting subject in an approachable, readable format. My one complaint is that parts of it read a little too New Age-y, which irks me. But that's the way I am. Aside from that one (rather small) problem, I would readily recommend this book to anyone looking for an all-in-one look at this branch of botany.

The authors Richard Schultes, director of the Botanical Museum at Harvard and Albert Hofmann, discoverer of LSD and former director of the Pharmaceutical-Chemical Research Lab in Basel, Switzerland, together have over fourteen years of research in field of botany, chemistry and ethnobotony. In their book the authors offer an ethnobological look at the sacred use of hallucinogenic plants and include: an introduction to hallucinogenic plants, a plant lexicon, overview of plant use chart, detailed section of fourteen major hallucinogenic plants, and concludes with an overview of the chemical structure of hallucinogens.
The plant lexicon includes ninety-one known and most common hallucinogenic plants with: a colored picture for each plant, botanical name, geographic location, hallucinogenic properties and a short description of the individual plant. Following the lexicon is a chart overview of each plant that includes: usage in history, context and purpose, preparation, chemical components and effects. Following the chart is a detailed account fourteen major hallucinogenic plants. "Most of these plants are or have been culturally and materially important...that they can not be overlooked "(81). The authors include: a descriptive history, gathering techniques, rituals, the chemical make-up of the plant, pictures of ceremonies, and artwork of "visions" by people.
Plants of the Gods is more than a research book, it is a guide to understanding the role hallucinogens play in various religious cultures using a scientific and anthropological approach.

This review is based on the 1992 publication:
Schultus, Richard E., and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing, and Hallucinogenic Powers. Rochester: Healing Arts Press, 1992.

If you're looking for information on how to prepare psychoactive plant medicine and, well quite frankly, how get high, this is not the book for you. However, if you'd like to gain more wisdom and insight into shamanistic practices around the world, this is a wonderful history that draws you into the mind of the shamin. I loved this book. It gave me new respect for the wisdom of those ancient people of whom we know so very little. I highly recommend this book for anyone interested in shamanism and herbalism. It offers insight into not HOW but WHY psychoactive plants are ingested. Plant medicine is afford the tremendous respect it so rightly deserves.

Great book. Not very much ceremonial information. Seems to be based more on storyline than facts.

In this book, Carson, an ex-marine, describes his apprenticeship in Oklahoma's Kiamchis mountains with an old Choctaw "conjure" (medicine woman) named Mary Gardener. The process included a prolonged purification (diet, smudges, tobacco, fasting), ceremonies, vision quests, all of which are fairly typical of NDN medicine practices. Towards the end, he helped Mary treat people afflicted with some of the many diseases encountered by the conjure: spirit -of-war disease, tiny-animals-frolicking-about-in-the-water disease,cloud, feather, little-gray-men-who run-the-world, birdsnake diseases, television sickness and many others. Carson provides a taxonomy of these diseases and their treatments, which i found very interesting. He also learns that each animal can cause its own specific disease which is illustrated by its own specific myth, usually featuring the Choctaw culture hero, Yellow Tobacco Boy. And not only animals: the elements, elementals, plants, stones, spirits - the number of sentient entities and their ability to do harm to an unaware human is, to the conjure, inexhaustible.

Carson was not alone in his studies - Mary had apprentices from all over the continent, including New Orleans and Mexico; apparently, in the universe of North American medicine people information flows copiously, if not freely. Apprentices learn about proper protocols for asking help from animals (either in the individual form or from the collective animal spirit) and about behaving impeccably in the face of the unknown. A central theme in the book revolves around the all-important knowledge of the human energy body, or "shilip". Choctaws recognize 22 gradations within the shilip, the viewing and manipulation of which have a central role in the healing process. Shilip is tightly integrated into a complicated cosmology, and this connection in turn is an integral part of the healing process. Once cannot be healed apart from the interconnectedness with the cosmos. The patient/client is seen holistically; a disease, or misfortune, is reflection of a wrong energetic turn in life which the conjure works to right.

The arduous training proved to be too much and Carson bailed out. Or lived to write about it :)

I found the book interesting and a quick read. The description of healing practices was certainly fascinating, not to mention Carson's sporadic interactions with "paranormal" aspects of conjure's reality. Disconcertingly, however, the book jacket reveals that Carson also authored "medicine cards" through which one can "discover power through the ways of animals". Hmmm... that makes me a bit suspicious. We'll see how it all pans out - i'll definitely be on lookout for more info about Choctaw "conjures."

I love this book. It was so exciting to be reading his journey into Native American Medicine. My sister, Debby Cody, is a reader of the Medicine Cards and I admire David's expertise and his boundaries of what is best for him.

David Carson is of Choctaw descent and has studied Native American spirituality since growing up in Oklahoma Indian country, but his latest CROSSING INTO MEDICINE COUNTRY is something more than spiritual reflection. Here he pursues initiation as a ceremonial healer with Choctaw medicine woman Mary Gardener, studying plant and animal forces and human energy manipulation for three years. Health and spirituality blend in a survey of Native teachings and health insights which blends a memoir with a set of special reflections.

Diane C. Donovan
California Bookwatch

This is one of the wisest books to come down the pike in a long while in my humble opinion. Mr. Carson is a great story teller, Medicine Man, who understands the power of humility and transformation. This book is a wide ranging exploration of events in the authors life working with some powerful healers, elders, and medicine people. He documents the road of the healer and what is required to advance on this path of solitary intent, finding pain and suffering along the way, but also openning one to some astonishing vistas of spirt. This book is probably for healers and others who have already embarked off of the shores of a status quo sensibility to find and recover the authenticity of one's soul. It certainly is not a journey for the weak of heart. As the author notes, not everyone is called to this path, but for those who are, a vigilance of courage is required to walk the winding road ahead. As one goes further down this road mystery opens to reveal something not everyone is capable of understanding at this moment in time.

This is one of the best books on Medicine Power I have read in a long time; and Mr. Carson is a guide worth the price of admission. This book speaks to more than just one's mind, it grabs hold of one's soul and teaches it something profound.

In The Secret Strength Of Angels: 7 Virtues To Live By, Frederic Flach focuses on the subject of angels, who they are, what they do, and how we can learn from them to communicate better, strengthen our mental and physical health, and lead happier, healthier, and more fulfilling lives. This abridged audiobook presentation is ably narrated by the author and highly recommended, informative, life affirming listening. Total Time: 3 hours.

"The Secret Strength of Angels" speaks to the soul expressing what has been too often inarticulate in our busy and troubled lives.An astonishing book full of surprises,describing experiences we rarely admit to others and usually deny to ourselves. We pay a high price for not heeding "The Better Angels of our Nature" and though living like an Angel is never easy, Frederic Flach does point the way in a book overflowing with human beauty.

Taught by Judeo-Christian heritage that we are created "a little less than the angels", this book is a guide to becoming more like the angels and as a result better persons. Since this book is incredibly easy to read its content may be dismissed. I hope it won't. I read it during the early part of Advent and plan to re-read it during the Lenten Season. I strongly recommend this book for all who are tired of books of instruction on how to manipulate others as a route to happiness.

It is about time that someone helped us to better understand angels! This is not your typical recounting of this and that angel story but a real life lesson on how we can in a sense become angels ourselves, or maybe we already are! This book is for non believers that may want to tap on this power that is within and around us . And for believers who always need affirmation. This book is for all of us who ask, "what is the purpose of my life?" This book will guide you to the answers you seek and maybe even with the help of an angel!

This book was like coming home for me. I am one of those people Ms. Campbell means when she says you need have no interest in Africa to enjoy her stories and suggestions. A friend gave me this book at my grandfather's funeral. Yes, it was very touching and insightful in light of his passing but even more so in light of my own life. I had wanted to try a new career for years. Her stories and simple steps helped me try. I'm buying copies for my family and friends!

I have used Ms. Campbell's books with high school and college students in World Religion classes. When parents called to ask me where they could buy "Spirit of the Ancestors" I knew I was onto something. This little book is teaching us in surprising ways. I won't say more--read it and treat yourself!

I heard Ms. Campbell speak in Los Angeles. Following a recent business trip, I had an opportunity to actually visit some of the African healers she writes about in her book, "Called to Heal."

The healers were very touched by Ms. Campbell's sensitivity and spoke of her generous help bringing several of them to the USA to expand their professional networks. "Spirit of the Ancestors" came about when one visiting healer said it was time for Ms. Campbell, "a modern American", to write about how she herself "works with the ancestors." They said "her approach is pure and crosses cultures. It belongs to everyone."

I immediately read the book and loved it! The stories are charming and authentic. I loved her close family and have tried some of the suggestions with my own children. Now they can't wait to tell me about their dreams and even listen to one another for "clues to the ancestors" that guard over them. My teenager is sharing the book with her friends and teachers.

The book is very touching, crosses not only cultures but I would add religion, education, ethnicity, and more. Buy it for your family and then have fun experimenting. It's a joy!

Susan Schuster Campbell speaks with a clear voice, sharing her African experiences through Western eyes. Americans have lost the vital connection with ancestors. Susan's book is full of personal stories and practical applications for reconnecting and building personal relationships with ancestral guides.

The African approach of contact with the ancestors complements religious and spiritual practices. In Spirit of the Ancestors, Ms. Campbell covers a variety of topics: 1)contacting ancestors; 2)ancestral dreaming; 3)following ancestral guidance; 4)doorway to the spiritual; 5)gifts of the ancestors; 6)the practice of ancestors. I have found this easy-to-read book helpful in my own shamanic practice and highly recommend it to anyone interested in deepening their own spiritual path.

A Gathering of Wisdoms is probably the very best documentation I've ever come across that focuses on the "right way" of working with people, whether they are of the Original People, or if they're non-native. Sterile environments and a counselor's "power" aren't what makes the changes...it's reaching out sincerely, with respect, and the desire to understand. And, this "A Gathering of Wisdoms" is a tremendous help to those who are reaching out to help others from their hearts! Lin

This manual is a godsend -- or Spirit-send. It presents the only clear outline for counseling Native clients available. The text can be used as a manual, workbook, ...whatever. Forms included are easily adapted to your particular agency's needs. Highly recommended by a seasoned drug/alcohol counseling veteran.

This manual is a godsend -- or Spirit-send. It presents the only clear outline for counseling Native clients available. The text can be used as a manual, workbook, ...whatever. Forms included are easily adapted to your particular agency's needs. Highly recommended by a seasoned drug/alcohol counseling veteran.

I thought this was a good book. My son who is more educated in Creek Indian culture differs in opinion. He felt that it wasn't authentic enough. My personal feelings are that it held plenty of knowledge for my interest level. It was a quick and fun read. I leave it in the guest room for visitors to browse. I had a few visitors who have stayed up too late because they got caught up in reading it. I would classify this as a book that might get you interested in knowing more. The author doesn't claim to be the last and only expert in this area.

If you are descended from any of the Nations that are from the SE of the US, you should read this book. It is a great book that gives a first person account of traditional Mvskogi medicine traditions passed through a particular family of the bird clan. Ok, there was an anthropologist involved...but he keeps his distance and admits his shortcomings. I really commend him for that. The account is what the medicine person himself wanted to say...

Bradford Keeney begins the book by recounting an incredible story. He and his crew arrived in Bali in 2000 to interview and photograph a number of balians, who are the traditional healers of Bali. They can be male or female. The first problem was that their photographic equipment and luggage did not show up at the airport. Well, that happens. Bradford Keeney then turned in for the night in his guide's compound. At two in the morning he woke up to a huge explosion and the sound of rocks and sand sliding down the outside of his room and a thunderous stomping of feet on the roof. He was terrified and called for help but nobody heard him. Bradford Keeney wondered what he should do. He didn't really want to stay in Bali another night.

Then he remembered that balians make magical drawings. The cameras were gone, so he decided to change the nature of the project and publish a book about these magical drawings. His guide could collect them and he could leave Bali immediately. Instantly the terrible noises stopped. When he emerged in the morning everyone thought that this was a sign of what he should do. His guide then took him to Mangku Alit, the top balian in Bali, who went into a trance and contacted the god for all shamans, Jero Gede Macaling. He confirmed it. The luggage turned up without explanation. It was a good omen.

For a month they visited various balians, all of whom confirmed approval of the project. The book contains interviews with six balians, Mangku Alit, Jero Sekar Manik, Jero Tapakan, Jero Mangku Srikandi, Mangku I. Made Pogog and I Gusti Gede Raka Antara. They are not terribly revealing. There is no analysis or explanation such as undertaken by Angela Hobart in Healing Performances of Bali. The interviews are short and the balians just explain that the Balinese visit them when they suspect that invisible forces are at work and want protection. The balians go into trance and get the reasons for any misfortunes. Often they prescribe magical drawings. The vocation usually runs in the family.

The book's strength and interest lies in fifty five magical drawings. There are also pages of wonderful black and white photographs, although many do not appear to have anything to do with the subject matter of the book. That does not matter. The drawings are in a unique Balinese style, but probably influenced by Indian Hindu art. They are powerful and wildly surreal in appearance: deformed bodies, disembodied heads, multiple limbs, half human, half animal, snake like protuberances and tails, and flames emanating from heads, knees and feet.

Balians can be of the right or the left side - those on the right side use their powers for good. The drawings depicted in the book are all of the right. They are not frightening; they are just very strange. A page is devoted to each drawing and facing it is a brief description, how it is prepared and its purpose.

The magical drawings are usually drawn on white cloth with Chinese ink. They can also be engraved on gold, copper or tin plate, or even clay fragments. Some are worn in your pocket or belt for safety; some are attached to the entrance gate of a compound to stop evil forces or robbers from entering; and some are placed above the bedroom door to give you long life or above the bed for protection. One is drawn on a betel leaf and spat at a person who needs protection from witches. Another is drawn on a turmeric root and swallowed to stop you being poisoned. Yet another prevents smallpox entering the compound. The most intriguing are those than can make you invisible or help you fly. They are not all to do with people. Some protect animals; some prevent mice coming in; and some protect crops against disease.

The drawings are intriguing works of art in themselves. They are not art for art's sake: they have a serious purpose and function. Indirectly they lay bare the innermost concerns of the Balinese. They remind me of the elegant, energetic, expressive drawings of the remarkable I Gusti Nyoman Lempad, who lived from 1862 to 1978. It would be good to research if he was influenced by them. He was well-known to be interested in sorcery.

The magical drawings of the balians were shrouded in secrecy. This book reveals a bit of that secret knowledge and provides us with a great opportunity to see them. Most people never get the chance.

Murni
Ubud, Bali

As beauty is often said to be in the eye of the beholder, so history, it seems, is in the hand of the chronicler. This rings true of Blake's first book, A Brief History of the Evolution of Body Adornment in Western Culture: Ancient Origins and Today.

The first half of the book contains brief biographies and photo essays of several people Blake has named as heavily influencing the modern Western piercing community, in addition to other lesser-known characters important to his own history. Two early pioneers discussed, both born near the turn of the century, are Ethel Granger and the Great Omi. A thorough section with both images and words from Blake's guru Fakir is presented, followed by tributes to mentor Father Daniel Jensen and Blake's adventurous grandmother, Dr. Naomi Coval. He pays homage to these inspiring people with obvious affection and respect, as they have made a huge impact upon his life. This section has been peppered throughout with archival and artful black and white photographs of the personalities discussed, as well as color pictures from his pioneering grandmother's world travels rescued from her archives. The result is an insightful collection of memoirs, anecdotes, pictures, and quotes that combine to tell the history of body modification in the Western world as it has inspired both the industry in general and the author specifically.

The book switches gears when Blake steps in to tell his own highly personal account of his introduction and growth within the piercing industry. This autobiographical section gives the very casually written perspective of the author as he travels through the early stages of his career as a piercer. Taking credit for many advances and extremes in terms of larger piercings, he discusses freehand piercing and coins the term "tribal surgery" to describe the methods employed by himself and his colleagues.

The second half of the book contains an abridged cross-section of ethnic and historical piercing practices and jewelry from around the world. Most pieces depicted are from Blake's collection in the form of the Nomad Museum in Oregon, while select items from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and other famous museums demonstrate the prevalence of piercing practices and jewelry on all continents throughout the millennia. This section is only a brief introduction and does not delve very deeply into history, as the title suggests, primarily focusing on collectible jewelry that has survived from antiquity - though some contemporary practices and pieces are also shown.

Being quite familiar with cultural body modification practices and ethnic jewelry myself, I was wondering what new information this work would present. Unless one has passed through Bend recently to see the Nomad collections, A Brief History showcases a scrumptious array of ethnic piercing jewelry unpublished until now, cataloged here for posterity. While the anecdotes and chronology presented were primarily a useful review for me, most readers will find this an informative and easy to read introduction to the ethnographic and historic backgrounds that deserve our respect for significantly paving the way to where the practice of body art now stands.

Healing Makes Our Hearts Happy is a beautifully written and photographed book of the Jul'hoansi people of the Kalahari Desert in southern Africa. Not only does the book give an excellent description of the history and culture of this society but also gives strong support to anyone who is striving to live as their hearts direct. I appreciated the style of intimacy with which this book is written. It is easy to find a level of familiarity with the members of this society as the authors weave their stories into a whole picture of a culture. The complex healing rituals performed by these healers were made understandable through their stories and photographs. The threat of extinction of this important part of the culture of the African people and all people is well presented by this example of the Jul'hoansi. We are all effected positively and negatively by the rapid, deep influences of technology. Healing Makes Our Hearts Happy is a work that leads us once again to a place of sensitivity concerning this inevitable struggle of conscousness. I would recommend this book highly to anyone interested in traditional healing practices, African history, technology and world culture. Ifetayo White, BA, CMT, Reiki Master-Teacher. Email: ifetayo@howardalumni.com

Being interested in Native American History and Culture, a while ago I had purchased the book "In the Beginning, The Navajo Genesis," which attempted to explain the Navajo Belief System through comparative analysis with regard to Christianity and Judiasm. The book written in academic terms was well written but failed to totally explain (as I said in my review) the entire system in plain English (sans fancy academia terminology). Much of the book I did understand but it made me hunt for a clearer more thorough explanation to make sure I did not misinterpet anything through translation.
"Navaho Symbols of Healing: A Jungian Exploration of Ritual, Image, and Medice" by Donald Sanders, MD does just that. With a BS in Psychology, I now had a book that explored the Culture/Belief System in terminology that made sense. After reading this book, the reader gains a better understanding of the Navaho system, and culture. As a result, the reader cannot help but admire them for their tremendous psychic abilities, strong physical constitution, and tremendous contribution they have given humanity through homeopathic medicine. This book explains why and how they feel so connected to the earth. It reveals some of the ceremonies, songs and prayers said by Natsani Tso, Medicine Man which are truly enlightening. It does also refer back to information given in "In the Beginning, A Navajo Genesis" which was helpful. What surprises me most is how closely connected their belief system is to Plato's philosophies. If anyone reads Plato's Symposium, they will see (by substituting symbols of Navaho for his or your own) how similiar the systems are, and how connected all of us are in our beliefs.
Reading Navaho Symbols of Healing enables the reader to gain a new perspective on and command a tremendous respect for the Native American